Sugar Shakedown: The 411 on the Sweet Stuff!
By Keenan W. Mussie
Imagine it's your day off and you have a clear schedule, you’re in your “happy place”. Whether it be lounging in your favorite chair, Netflix queued up, binge watching your favorite series, or in your backyard patio playing with your four-legged friend. It’s a sunny, warm day, not a cloud in the sky and time seems to stand still. Then you get that feeling in your tummy and think to yourself, “hmm, I could surely go for a snack.” And since this is such a beautiful day, you're not even thinking about the diet you may or may not be adhering to. If you’re like me, you’re probably craving something sinfully sweet!
It’s no secret, the sweet stuff is everywhere. Even for the most health conscious of us it seems like we just can’t get away from it. If you’ve ever wanted to know more about this delectable delight, I’m here to give you the 411 on all things sugar! What it is, where we get it and everything in between. So follow me to the sugar shack, things are gonna get decadent!
Sugar first popped up on the scene about 10,000 ago in New Guinea when these civilizations discovered the sugarcane plant. From here, word spread to Southeast Asia and southern China until it hit India where organized sugar production first took place. The climate in India was especially suited for sugarcane plantations. The Indian people began chewing the sugarcane plant to extract the sweet sucrose. But around 350 AD they found a way to crystalize it into a more useful form. Then in the Medieval era Muslim chemists improved the manufacturing process considerably and began using it in their cuisine and creating sweet products which continued to grow in popularity. This popularity soon spread to western Europe when warriors, during the Crusades, introduced it to royalty and other high-class citizens. Sugar was still expensive to make up to this point because of its very intense labor process. Without getting too deep into the history of stuff, I’ll cut to the chase. It wasn’t until the 18th century, when the price of sugar dropped low enough for virtually everyone in the world to afford it. And with the development of the steam engine (also in the 18th century) sugar production became mechanized and the need for a hard labor workforce disappeared. (“History of Sugar” History of Sugar.net 2024 http://www.sugarhistory.net/who-made-sugar/history-of-sugar/) Now that you know a little about the history of sugar, let’s get molecular!
A sugar molecule is made up of just three elements: carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Its chemical structure has just two molecules, a molecule of glucose bonded to a molecule of fructose. In simple terms, sugar is a carbohydrate. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are the building blocks that make up all carbs; also known as monosaccharides. Monosaccharides are carb molecules that can’t be broken down into smaller carb molecules. (The term for the breaking down of molecular structures is called hydrolysis - fun fact, if you care.) They bond with one another to form complex carbs called polysaccharides. (“poly” means “many”) Once in the body, all complex carbs are broken down into the three simple sugars: fructose, glucose, and galactose. Sometimes carbs can get a bad wrap, but it is the preferred energy source for the body because most provide glucose. Glucose is the fuel your brain, organs, and muscles need to function and engage in everyday activities. So when we talk sugar, we’re talking carbs.
We just discussed the real stuff about sugar. But what about the fake stuff? Or the “bizarro” sugar as I like to call it. It’s certainly out there, so let’s dive in! The first artificial sweetener, saccharin, AKA “Sweet n’ Low'' was discovered by Constantin Fahlberg and Ira Remsen at John Hopkins University (Baltimore, MD) in 1879. Fahlber made the discovery while he was working with the coal derivative, benzoic sulfamide, (A chemical derivative is a compound created from another compound through a chemical reaction) when he noticed a sweet taste on his hand. (Gershenson 2017). It soon became the first widely commercialized non-nutritive sweetener. *Fun fact about saccharin: It has been regulated as a food additive since 1977, but wasn’t declared safe to consume until 2001, by the FDA and state of California. And in 2010 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency removed saccharin from its list of hazardous substances.*It has the advantage of being a zero-calorie sweetener and is 200-700 times sweeter than sugar. The recommended daily allowance or RDA for saccharin is 2.3mg per pound of bodyweight. There are a total of five FDA approved artificial sweeteners: saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, sucralose, neotame, and advantame. (Gershenson 2017)
Sucralose AKA “Splenda” is the most popular artificial sweetener used in the United States. However, it was first discovered in 1976 at the University of London by Tate and Lyle, a British sugar company. In “science speak” it is derived by selective substitution of three hydroxyl groups (a hydroxyl group is just an oxygen atom bonded with a hydrogen atom) with chlorine atoms which results in a significant increase in sweetness.
You may think that artificial sweeteners such as saccharin and sucralose are safe to consume and can satisfy your sweet tooth without the calories of the real stuff, and they can, which speaks to the popularity of them. But not so fast my friend! I’ll break it down dumb jock style so you’ll be informed and able to decide for yourself. One of my goals is to help you think critically about what you’re putting your body, so let’s get to it!
The “notorious one”, aspartame (the one in our beloved “diet” products, such as soda) consists of two amino acids (amino acids are the building blocks of protein) which are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Digestion releases methanol, aspartic acid, and phenylalanine. These metabolites can be harmful at high doses. The metabolism products are believed to be more toxic than the original substance itself. Methanol is known to damage the liver, while formaldehyde and formate are also responsible for the destruction of liver cells. (Methanol is oxidized in the liver to form formaldehyde.) [When I say “oxidation”, this is chemistry speak, so get ready…Oxidation is when a molecule loses an electron or transfers an electron to another molecule. Electrons always come in pairs to make a molecule “stable”. An unpaired electron AKA “free radical” can cause damage in the body. See, I told you, this is nerd stuff]. There are also metabolites such as cysteine, homocysteine, and S-adenosyl-homocysteine that are toxic to the brain. (A metabolite is what is left over after metabolism occurs). Furthermore, it has been suggested that in human beings consuming large amounts of aspartame may be a significant source of formate, which can contribute to serious physiological changes. The role of aspartame in several disorders affecting the human body remains to be investigated.
I’m sure by now everyone has heard that artificial sweeteners such as aspartame (in this case) may have carcinogenic (cancer causing) properties. If you’re a health conscious person, (which you probably are if you are reading this) this is no surprise. I am going to hit you with some research I’ve done to let you know if this is true or if it’s snake oil.
In an article from the National Library of Medicine it was discovered that the body breaks down aspartame into formaldehyde after it is consumed. Formaldehyde is a colorless, strong smelling flammable chemical that is produced industrially and used in building materials such as particleboard, plywood, and other pressed-wood products (National Cancer Institute 2022). Consumption of one liter of diet soda results in the transformation of approximately 600 mg of aspartame into 60mg of formaldehyde. The ADI (acceptable daily intake) for formaldehyde is 0.15mg/kg of bodyweight. I weigh about 82kg so my ADI would be about 12mg of formaldehyde per day. So it’s quite possible the average man or woman is exceeding the ADI of formaldehyde by a considerable amount. Exposed to at high levels, formaldehyde can cause myeloid leukemia and rare cancers, including cancers of the paranasal sinuses, nasal cavity, and nasopharynx.
At face value, replacing sweeteners such as white sugar with artificial sweeteners such as aspartame may seem like a good idea. Especially if you are diabetic or if you are trying to stay fit. “A sweetener with no calories?!”I'm in! I switched to diet soda quite some time ago in hopes of losing weight; seduced by the artificial sweetener propaganda. Studies have been conducted that show artificial sweeteners do not have any effect on reduction in BMI (Body Mass Index) and may actually increase caloric intake to compensate for the energy deficit. However, it is difficult to say that the consumption of artificial sweeteners is to blame for the current obesity pandemic because some people may justify the excess calories consumed from other food sources. So the correlation is harder to determine whether it is the artificial sweeteners causing obesity or the consumption of too many calories.
However if you are consuming beverages that contain aspartame you are probably not consuming to the levels that would put you at risk for developing the previously mentioned cancers. Professions such as industrial workers and embalmers would be considered an “at risk” population. The effects of aspartame on metabolism still clearly need to be studied further to determine the long term impacts on health. With that being said, it is unclear whether aspartame is the direct cause of cancer. The by-products it produces via metabolism are more harmful than the substance itself. There is evidence to support that aspartame can cause mood disorders, mental stress, and depression, however. (Czarnecka et. al. 2021)
To “piggyback” off of my last sentence and to elaborate a bit more; aspartame can cause symptoms such as: convulsions, headaches, and depression. I won’t bore you with the complicated names of the chemicals that aspartame metabolism creates but I will tell you that these chemicals can affect neurotransmitters in the brain to some degree. Some of the chemicals that you might be familiar with such as dopamine and serotonin are the “feel good” chemical messengers in the brain that regulate mood and behavior. Aspartame consumption can result in a fall in dopamine and serotonin levels which can result in depression. Aspartame also stimulates cortisol production. Cortisol, AKA the “stress hormone”, is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, located on the top of each kidney. It is released in response to stress. So aspartame can, indeed, increase stress levels.
So there it is folks! Now you know a little (hopefully a lot) more about sugar. The history, the real, the fake, and some of the health concerns associated with them. Now you can apply some knowledge to your own relationship with the sweet stuff and make more educated choices when it comes to incorporating them into your personal diet. Remember, moderation is key with anything, I wish you luck and success on your health journey!
References
History of Sugar - From Early Sugarcane Cultivation, 2024, http://www.sugarhistory.net/who-made-sugar/history-of-sugar/
Gershenson, Gabriella, 2017 February 23. A Brief and Bizarre History of Artificial Sweeteners.
Retrieved 2024 July 31 from https://www.saveur.com/artificial-sweeteners/
Zelman, Kathleen M. 2024 February 12. What to Know about Saccharin. WebMD.com.
Retrieved 2024 July 17 from https://www.webmd.com/diet/what-to-know-saccharin
Magnuson, Bernadene A., Nestmann, Earle R., Critical Review of Current Literature on the Safety of Sucralose. 2017 August. Volume 106 Part A. Retrieved 2024 July 20 from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691517302818
Czarneck, Kamila, Pilarz, Aleksandra, Rogut, Aleksandra, et. al. Aspartame – True of False? Narrative Review of Safety Analysis of General use in Products. 2021 June 13. Retrieved July 6 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8227014/
Formaldehyde. National Cancer Institute. 2022 December 5. Retrieved 2024 July 17.
https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/formaldehyde